PORTUGUESE COLONIALISM AND TRIBAL LAND ALIENATION
Sebastian Rodrigues, May 2008
Pressure on prosperous tribal lands in Goa
prior to Portuguese colonialism was chiefly from the private moving bands. It
never enjoyed State patronage as during Portuguese rule in Goa.
Arrival of Portuguese was a major setback to the status of tribes in Goa, particularly the Gawdas. At a time when Portuguese
arrived Land of Goa was very prosperous both
agricultural as well as horticultural respects. Portuguese colonial state that
lasted in Goa for world record period of
colonialism, of 451 years had a unique and powerful State formation. Its base
of support came from those very bands looking out to dominate tribes prior to
colonial rule. They were invaders who were not equipped in fine arts State
functioning and found Portuguese their convenient allies. Portuguese
colonialism contributed to land alienation of tribes in Goa
in various ways.
Creation of Private Bhatcars
After years of wanderings in Goa seeking to verbally
dominate the tribes though without success colluded with Portuguese for the
control and legal transfer of land from Indigenous People to Portuguese
nationals and major portion to Desais,
Deshprabhus, Prabhudesais and Ranes,
and later on Dempos, Salgaonkars,
Chowgules, etc. For smooth
fraudulent transfer of land they opted to get converted to Christianity, the
faith propagated by the Portuguese colonizers and changed their names and
surnames to Portuguese. They became metaphorically white to different shades;
some colluded with Portuguese
State without converting
to Christianity, while others did so by converting and was awarded with huge
lands for control and ownership wrested from the Indigenous People. They came
to be known as Bhatcars meaning
landlords. Most of these lands
belonged to the Indigenous People though without written documents. Portuguese
colonial State with a stroke of a pen created written documents that show legal
ownership to the members of bands that sought land captures. State violent
agencies in the form of colonial police and colonial military were at the
service of these new owners. They prospered under Portuguese colonialism for
their intentions were fulfilled during their regime. They will then walk out
into post liberation Goa as one of the major segments of people that was gifted
with land control by tiny nation from Iberian Peninsula.
Thus a class of landlords was born in Goa
thanks to colonial intercourse with marauding bands. Their tiny number was
compensated with this class learning Portuguese and supplying labour to run
colonial State administration in Goa. This
gave them access to documents of all kinds in possession with colonial State
agencies and so the scope for further manipulation of land records and further
land alienation of Indigenous people. Over the colonial period large tracks of
lands were parceled out to private individuals, mostly Brahmins. This process
created the basis as to how they even though consist less than 2% of Goa’s
total Population is able to politically and economically dominate 98% of the
population even after 46 years of so called Goa’s liberation in 1961.
The Colonial
Church and tribal land alienation
Portuguese Colonialism in Goa
also had religious dimensions; it sought to transplant faith of the colonizers
onto the colonized. The time of Portuguese colonialism was prior to Industrial
revolution in Europe. The symbol of Power was
land and it was actual power too. The European religious superstructure was
super imposed on Goa while transforming it as major centre for spread of
Christianity to Asia. The religion as colonial
strategy contributed towards capture of tribal lands and bringing them under
the church control i.e. colonial control. Tribal religious worships were put
under pressure and ultimately large number of them demolished only to build
church buildings in their place. Though these have been recorded in history as
Hindu temples, they were not. In fact ‘Hindu’
as a category was yet to emerge during early Portuguese colonial period[1].
It was caste categories that were in currency. Portuguese colonial Church was
controlled directly by Crown in Lisbon
and locally supported by Brahmins who were converted and were parceled huge
tracks of land enjoying class privileges of bhatcars.
Converted Brahmins and non-converted Brahmins shared class alliance. It was
in their interest that these temples are demolished, not so much for the
religious reasons as much as to take control of the lands that temples
controlled. In fact, Sergio Mascarenhas, a Portuguese historian presently
heading Fundacao Oriente in Goa claims[2]
that Temples
during Portuguese colonial times were demolished by Goans themselves and not by
Portuguese. The problem with the word ‘Goan’ is that it conceals heterogeneous
nature of classes in society in Goa and
projects everyone - local dominator and dominated - as single category. The
question here is which Goans were involved in breaking down of temples? Large tracks of community lands were under
temple control. Fascists policies of the times came in handy to the forces
seeking to establish control over these lands and demolitions were carried on,
and church buildings were constructed over them. This way temple lands was
taken over and became church lands. The transfer meant the village temple lands
were now under the control of the colonial powers and they were lost to the
original community that owned it. The temple committees did not offer much
resistance and fled with temple deities as the assault was not just from
Portuguese but from the marauding bands acting in alliance with the Portuguese
colonizers. In fact they were sheltering them, for if they had to establish
their control; sheltering of Portuguese was of strategic necessity, and they
did that for 451 years. Imposing Church buildings were constructed and got
stabilized too. Brahmins had their one more victory over the lands of
Indigenous People.
In order to further cement the takeover of temples various
coercive methods of control of Indigenous People were adopted. One of them was
mass conversion of the Indigenous People and ban on pre-conversion rituals
seeking complete adherence to the new faith. Conversions were carried on though
use of force and deceit. And since Indigenous People did not understand
language of the colonizer, some of them gave in to the conversion attempts.
State agents in charge of the villages known as regidor led the conversion drives. These drives very often
consisted of throwing of pieces of bread on the top of the house top, pieces of
bread and poke into the village common well, and declaring that whoever is
staying in the house or whoever from the village drinks water from the well is
deemed converted and they are to report to the church the next day and get new
faith and new name and surname, all overnight[3].
And with the ringing of the church bells communities were attempted to be
pushed into painful phase of alienation of their land, faith and culture all
together. This is how Brahmins in collusion with the colonial powers found long
term solution for their problem of minority domination. Church and Christianity
was their weapon, their way out for control and domination for posterity.
Besides owning land at village level, church also has
central institution that owns land during colonial times. It is known as Santa
Monica. Various
kinds of lands from all over Goa including the grazing lands for cattle of
tribes are under legal ownership of Santa Monica. Grazing lands of Dulapem village in
Tiswadi Taluka is one example in this regard.
Formation of ‘Communidades’
and suppression of ‘Ganvkary’
Gawdas as first settlers of Goa
had evolved their social institutions for governance of the community and its
economy very well. Two institutions played crucial role in this. First is Mand. ‘It is an oldest Social
Institution established by the tribals and first settlers of Goa.
It is an institution wherein one can learn the social, cultural, religious,
political and economic life of the tribals of Goa.
As per historians this institution was founded by the Gawda tribe about 5000
B.C. There are no written documents available regarding its registration with
the government departments. As members were illiterate and not mixing with
other communities, there was no awareness among the members about prevailing
laws of the government. One can only know about the history of the Mand only
through the oral tradition coming from generation to generation.
Mand used to be an
open space situated in the middle of the village ranging from 20-25 square
meters to 5000 square meters. Mostly it is an open space but at some places one
can find trees like Banyan, Pipal and other forest trees. Beneath this tree one
can find a small stone structure called Ghumti.
There is no idol kept in Ghumti. Mand
is also found among catholic Gawda community.
Mand is an
institution governed by an elected body from amongst tribal communities. Any
person who attains the age of 18 years can become the member of Mand. A member who completes the age of
65 years is exempted from the membership and is duly respected. Head of Mand is called Manda Guru. His position is supreme and many decisions at Social,
Cultural, Religious, Political and Economic are taken here.
One of the magnificent creations of Mand in order to look after the problems relating to the land and
its revenues is its Gaonkary System known
as Goanponn. This institution has
played significant role in controlling and administering, as per oral rules and
regulations, all the land belonged to Mand.
The land included the one under agriculture, horticulture, grazing lands
and also forest lands. This is an area, backbone of tribal economy that was
altered by Portuguese
Colonial State
at the instance of all those who wanted to take over control of the prosperous
tribal lands. Portuguese Colonial State undertook the process to get these ‘Gaonkaries’ registered with the colonial
State and formed written rules and regulations thereby injecting alien system
in Goankary functioning and initiating the process of land alienation in most
of the cases. They were given new name in the language of the colonizer – Communidades.
Out of around 220 registered Communidades
barely two had some representation from the tribal communities. The rest of
them got recorded those marauding bands of the time colluding with the colonial
State as the Indigenous People. They include Brahmins, continue to propagate
that they are the original tribe, and Gaonkary
system is theirs and they got Colonial protection for its safe guard. After
Gawdas got alienated from their
system, Communidades functions without them mainly as legal entities keeping
meticulous written details of the generations of descendants and annually
collected their share of income Zon.
The institution was administered with vengeance with prime objective of
preserving legal evidence that those whose names are written in the communidade records are the tribes of Goa. Actual tribes who cultivated and administered these
lands had done away with their function and new set of people with collective
intention of land grab took control of the situation with direct collaboration
of Portuguese Colonial State.
While they tried to get into the administration of these lands, over the time
they degenerated. The foundational principles amongst Gawdas for the governing
of these lands were deep internal solidarity and strong spirit of cooperation
that was lacking amongst those who had seized control of Gaonkary System. Gawdas were then kept as reserve force for labour
especially on the farmlands parceled out to the supporters of colonial rule in Goa. They were denied education during colonial days as a
result they were not able to articulate woes as a community. Education was
largely meant for Brahmins and to no one else. This is complex manner in which Gaonkary system was changed to Communidades and tribes in Goa lost their land.
Creation of Mokaso system and
tribal land alienation
Portuguese colonialism expanded to the full territory of Goa in phases. The first few islands to
come under Portuguese occupation were Divar, and Zuem in Tiswadi Taluka. Soon
after that Tiswadi Taluka came under Portuguese rule. Next phase of expansion
took place in Bardez and Salcete talukas. Marmagao was part of Salcete Taluka.
These places are known as old conquest areas. Inquisition policies and
conversions were made fully applicable to these Talukas of Goa during the first
250 years of Portuguese rule. The next phase of expansion was in Quepem,
Pernem, Bicholim, Sattari, Sanguem, Ponda and Canacona talukas. These places
were under rule of different dynasties before
Portuguese entered into series of diplomatic and military measures with them
under the Portuguese domain. One common understanding in case of all of them
was restrain in implementing policies of conversions and inquisition practices.
Besides these, each Taluka was subjected to peculiar set of conditions for
their cooperation in payment of taxes to Portuguese and obeying the rules laid
down by the Portuguese crown in Lisbon.
One set of conditions were imposed after the pact with
warring band of Ranes. Ranes were appointed to collect taxes on behalf of rulers of Sawantwadi in Maharastra known as
Sawants to collect taxes from that portion of geographic areas of Goa that were
ruled by Sawants. However due to various reason Sawants conceded their
territories in Goa to Portuguese and Ranes
were left without job. Ranes were trained in warfare decided to launch their
attack against Portuguese rulers in a bid to get the colonial State to get
subdued for a compromise that would ensure the Protection to Ranes and also
guarantee additional privileges. After a brief tug of war for power that
included guerrilla fighting in the forests of Sattari and Bicholim talukas,
Ranes entered into a settlement compromise with the Portuguese State.
Under the settlement Ranes were to enter the phase of cease fire. In return
Portuguese would give additional privileges to Ranes in the form of Mokaso lands in Sattari and Bicholim
Talukas. Mokaso lands were granted to
Ranes in return for maintaining peace
with Portuguese Colonial State.
Large tracks of lands belonging to Gawdas were legally transferred in the name
of Ranes in Sattari and Bicholim Talukas. All together 5 such tracks of land
were gifted to Ranes. They were at Advai, Khadki and Saleli in Sattari Taluka,
and Sankhelim and Maulingem in Bicholim Taluka[4].
The cultivators, the members of the Gawda tribe who created these fertile lands
were nowhere in the picture as far as legal position was concerned but they
continued to work on these lands and Hegemonic position of Ranes got
consolidated in Sattari and Bicholim talukas during Portuguese rule. While Goa was under Portuguese rule, Ranes set themselves to
work to establish their kingdom in these talukas. Fear amongst Gawdas and introduction
of Feudal ethos led to a transformation towards more exploitative situation as
far as tribes are concerned. With these foundation during colonial regime Ranes
stepped into Liberated Goa. Liberation for Ranes meant liberation from
Portuguese obstacle to establish its own kingdom in Sattari and Bicholim
talukas. Even after 46 years of Liberation of Goa this situation has not
reversed and Tribes in Goa are yet to achieve
their liberation.
Mining Leases in Goa and land
alienation
Explorations for mining purpose began during first decade of
20th century. Portuguese involved German geologists to survey for
availability of minerals in Goa. After three
decades of exploration iron ore, magnesium, silica and bauxite deposits were
found in various parts of Goa[5].
Silica and Bauxite was found in coastal Goa, while Iron
Ore and Magnesium was traced in huge deposits
in the hinterland Goa. Colonial
State began leasing out lands for
those who want to begin mining by 1940s for extracting the Ore. By the end of 1950s approximately one
thousand mining leases were given in the talukas of Sanguem, Quepem, Bicholim,
Sattari, Bardez and few leases in Pernem. Actual mining operations began in
1945. The first 100 tonnes of Iron Ore was exported to Japan in 1948. Goa’s Iron Ore import played
very crucial role towards recovery of Japanese economy that was in a state of
collapse after the nuclear attacks by USA in 1945. Goa remained its chief
supply of Iron Ore
and then magnesium till last few years when exports from Brazil came as competitor for Goan
Iron Ore. Bicholim and Sattari Talukas were
amongst the first to sacrifice its paddy fields, forest, mountains, ground
water and livelihood support systems to people living in the vicinity. Most of
these lands were occupied by tribes. In fact it was their land. Non-mechanized
forms of mining triggered off internal migration within Goa.
Tribes as well as non tribes were drafted to work in the mines. New settlements
of labour class began to come about. They did not own land in the mining
village and this laid the foundation for future confrontations[6]
with tribal people that are attached to the agricultural field.
Two rivers Zuari and Mandovi began to be used to transport Ore dug from the bowel of the earth towards Marmagaon Harbor. From harbor Ore
would be re-loaded onto the huge foreign ships for export to Japan. Movement of barges in the
river water generated ripples that damaged adjacent bands[7]
in riparian island villages like Divar and often led to minor floods.
During Portuguese colonial times all the mining leases that
were granted were in the name of either Portuguese national, Brahmins converted
to Christianity, Gujarati traders in good books with colonial power structures,
other businessmen wandering in Goa and sharing friendly relations with colonial
power structures, multinational companies etc. In other words all those
elements that are helping to extend Portuguese colonialism way beyond Indian
Independence of 1947. In fact Jawaharlal Nehru, Indian Prime Minister under whose
regime Indian army launched ‘Operation Vijay’ and captured Goa by defeating
Portuguese forces in two days in December 1961 got into elaborate negotiations
with these mining lease holders before taking decision to send Indian army into
Goa. It is only after that he entered into secret pact with the mining lease
holders cum mine operators that Indian government will continue the mining
leases as granted by the Portuguese colonial State that Nehru mustered
confidence to enter Goa almost after 14 years British had left India.
Such was a power that they collectively wield over the State structures in Goa.
In fact, few years before ‘Operation Vijay’, in 1958,
T.B.Cunha[8],
stalwarts amongst freedom fighters against Portuguese colonialism, wrote in Bombay based journal titled Free Goa that it was mining companies that are responsible for
holding and perpetuating Portuguese colonial rule in Goa.
It is very important to understand the role mining played in colonial State
formation. T.B.Cunha does provide very significant insights into the State of
affairs in the colonial times. Here I re-produce his article of 1958, the last
one before his death:
“The main cause of the
failure to liberate Goa even ten years after the independence of India is the
systematic sabotage, carried by Indian businessmen against all the efforts made
by Goans and by others (sic) to achieve the liberation. This is now clear to
all those who have studied the Goa question objectively and do not believe in
the lame excuses invented to explain the shameful continuation of the
occupation by Portugal of
territories situated in India.
It is not the lack of unity among Goans nor the lack of co-operation on the
part of Indian people to achieve integration of Goa, Daman and Diu into India
that is responsible for the indefinite postponement of freeing them from
foreign rule. It is the protection given by some Indian politicians in Power to
the Indian businessmen for carrying a profitable speculation in Goa with the full connivance of the Portuguese officialdom.
That mainly is responsible for the present State of affairs.
The facilities given
by the Portuguese government to the Indian businessmen are such that they have
made them interested in the continuance of Portuguese rule in Goa and made them
wish to postpone as long as possible the liberation of the Portuguese occupied
territories. The Indian Politicians who support these Indian merchants do not
seem to realize that the profits made by them are gained not only at the cost
of economic and financial interests of India but are also detrimental to her
national unity, territorial integrity and future security. Narrow-minded and
unable to grasp the national interest as they believe that the profits made by
Indians compensate the country for the loss it suffers otherwise from
Portuguese occupation.
We have repeatedly
shown here, giving names and figures, that the help given by Indian capitalists
to exploit the Goan mining wealth has served to increase the revenue of the
Portuguese administration and to allow it to maintain an army of many thousands
of European and African soldiers and officers and a costly political force. The
exploitation of the mining industry and the contraband trade which is
simultaneously carried on by the same Indian traders is the main source of
income to the Portuguese in Goa who themselves have not invested a single rupee
in our country. Under the camouflage of a fictitious economic blockade and
sanctions, which the have sabotaged, the Indian merchants, together with some
foreign speculators, have extended to the Portuguese the help they needed to
perpetuate and consolidate their domination in Goa.
In addition to the
help given for the extraction of the
iron and manganese ore, the Indian Capitalists have also helped the Portuguese
to improve the transport of the minerals by railways, roads and rivers, to
build a new and big airport and to extend the works of the Marmagao (sic)
harbour. We have given here the name of Indian businessmen including Goans who
have invested their capital in all these concerns. Some of these persons are
known to be well-related with Indians and some foreigners. The capital, the
management and even a great part of the labour is Indian and are closely
connected with concerns functioning in India.
A further contribution
to help the Portuguese to consolidate their position in Goa
is now the formation of a ship-building Society with the co-operation of the
Indian capitalists who run the mining industry and indulge in its complementary
smuggling trade. The capital subscribed to the new society comes from the
Government of Portuguese India
and other institutions depending on the government which are compelled by the
government to lend their funds. But a good amount of their capital is also
brought by the Indian and foreign firms working in Goa.
The capital invested by Private Indian and foreign concerns is indeed superior
to the sum invested by the government.
The following is the
list of the Indian and foreign investors who have contributed to the funds of
new society and who also permanently co-operate with Portuguese in
strengthening foreign hold on Goa. Here are the most important names:
Chowgule and Co. Ltd.
Damodar Mangalji and
Co. (India)
Ltd.
Gangadhal Agrawal
Hiralal Khodidas
Khantilal & Co.
Ltd.
Mineira Nacional Ltd.
Subraya & Co.
Timble Brothers Ltd.
V.M. Salgaonkar &
Brothers Ltd.
V.S. Dempe & Co.
Ltd.
Joao Hogo Sequira
Madev Sinay Talaulikar
A. Abdulrazak
Sesa Goa Ltd.
(Germano-Italian)
W.I.P Railway
(British)
Mingoa society
(Italian)
The installation of
the ship-building works is to be started in Vasco da Gama near Marmagao harbour
under the direction of Portuguese, Indian and Britishers. The capital
subscribed amounts to nearly 35 lakhs divided in shares of Rs. 100/- each. The
report accompanying the project of the Ship-Building Society clearly says that
it aims at resisting India’s
efforts to unite Goa to India.
It has not prevented the proteges of
our Congress patriots to fully co-operate with the Portuguese in the
anti-Indian endevour. That may allege
that it is “constructive work” (Gandhian terminology) pursued by Indians in Goa
with the connivance of pseudo-Gandhians in power in India. As a matter of fact they are
plundering and mortgaging Goan wealth for the immediate benefit of Portugal.
While the Indian
government is quietly awaiting to settle the problem of Goa by “peaceful
negotiations” the Indian moneybags are allowed to peacefully help the
Portuguese and enrich themselves at the cost of the Indian and Goan economy, of
the suffering Goans and non-Goans and more than anything else at the cost of
Indian national Integrity, her good name and her safety. It is in the interest
of these moneybags indeed that the settlement of the Portuguese pockets has
been postponed indefinitely. They are the people who spread false and distorted
news about Goa and mislead and misinform the official circles in India about the real situation of Portuguese
territories in India.
Only the Indian Government must understand that they are not interested in the
liberation of Goa because when it comes, it
will deprive them of their easy and tainted profits. One must also know that
these double dealers are the real political informers and advisors of the
Portuguese on the Goan question.
One must say that
these unscrupulous merchants would not have succeeded in their treacherous work
of support to the foreign occupants of Goa if
they had not received all facilities from Indian authorities to carry on their
nefarious activity. Not only they were given in India all normal facilities
allowed to honest traders but they were left free to act in contempt of law and
resort to criminal corruption to carry on their smuggling activities which are
complimentary to the Goan mining industry. In fact, since independence they
were treated as a privileged class allowed to prosper at the cost of the most
vital interests of the nation. Before the relaxation of the permit system when
common people were harassed in every manner when they had to travel to and from
Goa, it was precisely these merchants for whom
the economic restrictions really meant (sic) who enjoyed all sorts of
facilities thanks to powerful friends they had in the official circles. No
wonder that the supposed economic sanctions failed miserably and some had to be
removed as ineffective. In fact, they are sabotaged in benefit of these
unpatriotic citizens and lawbreakers.
While our brave Goan
and non-Goan liberators were facing by hundreds and thousands the most fascist
repression of the Portuguese Police State, suffering long years of prison,
deportations, beatings, tortures and even death, thee Indian adventurist
traders were amassing fortunes and prospering at the expense of other people’s
sacrifices. And it is precisely these people who are now carrying the
whispering campaign against Goans accusing them of being responsible for the
failure of liberation because of the lack of unity between their too numerous
political parties. As a matter of fact, the disrupting activity among Goans and
non-Goans was the work of these very slanderers of the Goan movement who
infiltrated bogus nationalists in the ranks of our workers or corrupted others
with their tainted money. The whispering campaign is meant to cloak the guilt
of those who are really responsible for the continuance of the foreign
domination in apportion of the Indian land even after independence. But their
treason shall not remain concealed or forgotten.”
This article provides brilliant glimpse of the way mining
companies used Portuguese colonial State as their protector for International
mining trade. And all this at a time when mining was yet to get mechanized.
Mechanization of mining sector began after Goa’s integration with India.
And the way Indian
State was used by mining
companies is too radically different from the way they used Portuguese colonial
State. Tribal land alienation in Goa must be
looked in this context of International Political Economy.
[1] Sammit
Khandeparkar at history seminar at CES
College, Cuncolim on
March 13 2007.
[2] These
claims were made at discussion on this theme at a History seminar in CES
college, Cuncolim held on March 13-14, 2007.
[3] Discussions with Durgadas Gaonkar.
[4] Discussions with Durgadas Gaonkar and Dayanand Gawde.
[5] For
mining lease Map of Goa see Annexure – 3.
[6] This
situation is visible in Colamb village in Sanguem Taluka.
[7] Bands
are barricades that blocks the entry of saline water into paddy fields. They
were constructed by indigenous people while claiming lands from the bosom of Arabian Sea many thousands of years ago.
[8] Cunha,
T.B., Portuguese Occupation of Goa
supported by Indian Merchants, in Free
Goa, 25 July 1958, reproduced in Tombat, Nishta, Tristao De Braganza Cunha (1891-1958) and the rise of Nationalist
consciousness in Goa, Appendix three, Ph. D dissertation, Goa University,
Goa, 1995.
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